Introduction
The concept of effective microorganisms (EM) was developed by Professor Teruo Higa, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan (Higa, 1991; Higa and Wididana, 1991a). EM consists of mixed cultures of beneficial and naturally-occurring microorganisms that can be applied as inoculants to increase the microbial diversity of soils and plant. Research has shown that the inoculation of EM cultures to the soil/plant ecosystem can improve soil quality, soil health, and the growth, yield, and quality of crops. EM contains selected species of microorganisms including predominant populations of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts and smaller numbers of photosynthetic bacteria, actinomycetes and other types of organisms. All of these are mutually compatible with one another and can coexist in liquid culture.
EM is not a substitute for other management practices. It is, however, an added dimension for optimizing our best soil and crop management practices such as crop rotations, use of organic amendments, conservation tillage, crop residue recycling, and biocontrol of pests. If used properly, EM can significantly enhance the beneficial effects of these practices (Higa and Wididana, 1991b).
Throughout the discussion which follows, we will use the term "beneficial microorganisms" In a general way to designate a large group of often unknown or ill-defined microorganisms that interact favorably in soils and with plants to render beneficial effects which are sometimes difficult to predict. We use the term "effective microorganisms" or EM to denote specific mixed cultures of known, beneficial microorganisms that are being used effectively as microbial inoculants.
Utilisation of Beneficial Microrganisms in Agriculture
Conceptual design is important in developing new technologies for utilizing beneficial and effective microorganisms for a more sustainable agriculture and environment. The basis of a conceptual design is imply to first conceive an ideal or model and then to devise a strategy and method for achieving the reality. However it is necessary to carefully coordinate the materials, the environment, and the technologies constituting the method. Moreover one should adopt a philosophical attitude in applying microbial technologies to agricultural production and conservation systems.
There are many opinions on what an ideal agricultural system is. Many would agree that such an idealized system should produce food on a long-term sustainable basis. Many would also insist that it should maintain and improve human health, be economically and spiritually beneficial to both producers and consumers, actively preserve and protect the environment, be self-contained and regenerative, and produce enough food for an increasing world population (Higa, 1991).
Efficient Utilization and Recycling of Energy
Agricultural production begins with the process of photosynthesis by green plants which requires solar energy, water, and carbon dioxide. It occurs through the plants ability to utilize solar energy in "fixing" atmospheric carbon into carbohydrates. The energy obtained is used for further biosynthesis in the plant, including essential amino acids and proteins. The materials used for agricultural production are abundantly available with little initial cost. However, when it is observed as an economic activity, the fixation of carbon by photosynthesis has an extremely low efficiency mainly because of the low utilization rate of solar energy by green plants. Therefore, an integrated approach is needed to increase the level of solar energy utilization by plants so that greater amounts of atmospheric carbon can be converted into useful substrates (Higa and Wididana, 1991a).
Although the potential utilization rate of solar energy by plants has been estimated theoretically at between 10 and 20%, the actual utilization rate is less than 1%. Even the utilization rate of C4 plants, such as sugar cane whose photosynthetic efficiency is very high, barely exceeds 6 or 7% during the maximum growth period. The utilization rate is normally less than 3% even for optimum crop yields.
Past studies have shown that photosynthetic efficiency of the chloroplasts of host crop plants cannot be increased much further; this means that their biomass production has reached a maximum level. Therefore, the best opportunity for increasing biomass production is to somehow utilize the visible light, which chloroplasts cannot presently use, and the infrared radiation; together, these comprise about 80% of the total solar energy. Also, we must explore ways of recycling organic energy contained in plant and animal residues through direct utilization of organic molecules by plants (Higa and Wididana, 1991a).
Thus, it is difficult to exceed the existing limits of crop production unless the efficiency of utilizing solar energy is increased, and the energy contained in existing organic molecules (amino acids, peptides and carbohydrates) is utilized either directly or indirectly by the plant. This approach could help to solve the problems of environmental pollution and degradation caused by the misuse and excessive application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to soils. Therefore, new technologies that can enhance the economic-viability of farming systems with little or no use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are urgently needed and should be a high priority of agricultural research both now and in the immediate future (National Academy of Sciences, 1989; 1993).
Preservation of Natural Resources and the Environment
The excessive erosion of topsoil from farmland caused by intensive tillage and row-crop production has caused extensive soil degradation and also contributed to the pollution of both surface and groundwater. Organic wastes from animal production, agricultural and marine processing industries, and municipal wastes (e.i., sewage and garbage), have become major sources of environmental pollution in both developed and developing countries. Furthermore, the production of methane from paddy fields and ruminant animals and of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, land clearing and organic matter decomposition have been linked to global warming as "greenhouse gases" (Parr and Hornick, 1992b).
Chemical-based, conventional systems of agricultural production have created many sources of pollution that, either directly or indirectly, can contribute to degradation of the environment and destruction of our natural resource base. This situation would change significantly if these pollutants could be utilized in agricultural production as sources of energy.
Therefore, it is necessary that future agricultural technologies be compatible with the global ecosystem and with solutions to such problems in areas different from those of conventional agricultural technologies. An area that appears to hold the greatest promise for technological advances in crop production, crop protection, and natural resource conservation is that of beneficial and effective microorganisms applied as soil, plant and environmental inoculants (Higa, 1995).
Beneficial and Effective Microorganisms for a Sustainable Agriculture Towards Agriculture Without Chemicals and With Optimum Yields of High Quality Crops.
Agriculture in a broad sense, is not an enterprise which leaves everything to nature without intervention. Rather it is a human activity in which the farmer attempts to integrate certain agroecological factors and production inputs for optimum crop and livestock production. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that farmers should be interested in ways and means of controlling beneficial soil microorganisms as an important component of the agricultural environment. Nevertheless, this idea has often been rejected by naturalists and proponents of nature farming and organic agriculture. They argue that beneficial soil microorganisms will increase naturally when organic amendments are applied to soils as carbon, energy and nutrient sources. This indeed may be true where an abundance of organic materials are readily available for recycling which often occurs in small-scale farming. However, in most cases, soil microorganisms, beneficial or harmful, have often been controlled advantageously when crops in various agroecological zones are grown and cultivated in proper sequence (i.e., crop rotations) and without the use of pesticides. This would explain why scientists have long been interested in the use of beneficial microorganisms as soil and plant inoculants to shift the microbiological equilibrium in a way that enhances soil quality and the yield and quality of crops (Higa and Wididana, 1991b; Higa, 1994:1995).
Most would agree that a basic rule of agriculture is to ensure that specific crops are grown according to their agroclimatic and agroecological requirements. However, in many cases the agricultural economy is based on market forces that demand a stable supply of food, and thus, it becomes necessary to use farmland to its full productive potential throughout the year.
The purpose of crop breeding is to improve crop production, crop protection, and crop quality. Improved crop cultivars along with improved cultural and management practices have made it possible to grow a wide variety of agricultural and horticultural crops in areas where it once would not have been culturally or economically feasible. The cultivation of these crops in such diverse environments has contributed significantly to a stable food supply in many countries. However, it is somewhat ironic that new crop cultures are almost never selected with consideration of their nutritional quality or bioavailability after ingestion (Hornick, 1992).
As will be discussed later, crop growth and development are closely related to the nature of the soil microflora, especially those in close proximity to plant roots, i.e., the rhizosphere. Thus, it will be difficult to overcome the limitations of conventional agricultural technologies without controlling soil microorganisms. This particular tenet is further reinforced because the evolution of most forms of life on earth and their environments are sustained by microorganisms. Most biological activities are influenced by the state of these invisible, minuscule units of life. Therefore, to significantly increase food production, it is essential to develop crop cultivars with improved genetic capabilities (i.e., greater yield potential, disease resistance, and nutritional quality) and with a higher level of environmental competitiveness, particularly under stress conditions (i.e., low rainfall, high temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, and agressive weed growth).
To enhance the concept of controlling and utilizing beneficial microorganisms for crop production and protection, one must harmoniously integrate the essential components for plant growth and yield including light (intensity, photoperiodicity and quality), carbon dioxide, water, nutrients (organic-inorganic) soil type, and the soil microflora. Because of these vital interrelationships, it is possible to envision a new technology and a more energy-efficient system of biological production.
Low agricultural production efficiency is closely related to a poor coordination of energy conversion which, in turn, is influenced by crop physiological factors, the environment, and other biological factors including soil microorganisms. The soil and rhizosphere microflora can accelerate the growth of plants and enhance their resistance to disease and harmful insects by producing bioactive substances. These microorganisms maintain the growth environment of plants, and may have secondary effects on crop quality. A wide range of results are possible depending on their predominance and activities at any one time. Nevertheless, there is a growing consensus that it is possible to attain maximum economic crop yields of high quality, at higher net returns, without the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Until recently, this was not thought to be a very likely possibility using conventional agricultural methods. However, it is important to recognize that the best soil and crop management practices to achieve a more sustainable agriculture will also enhance the growth, numbers and activities of beneficial soil microorganisms that, in turn, can improve the growth, yield and quality of crops (National Academy of Sciences, 1989; Hornick, 1992; Parr et al., 1992).
EM is not a substitute for other management practices. It is, however, an added dimension for optimizing our best soil and crop management practices such as crop rotations, use of organic amendments, conservation tillage, crop residue recycling, and biocontrol of pests. If used properly, EM can significantly enhance the beneficial effects of these practices (Higa and Wididana, 1991b).
Throughout the discussion which follows, we will use the term "beneficial microorganisms" In a general way to designate a large group of often unknown or ill-defined microorganisms that interact favorably in soils and with plants to render beneficial effects which are sometimes difficult to predict. We use the term "effective microorganisms" or EM to denote specific mixed cultures of known, beneficial microorganisms that are being used effectively as microbial inoculants.
Utilisation of Beneficial Microrganisms in Agriculture
Conceptual design is important in developing new technologies for utilizing beneficial and effective microorganisms for a more sustainable agriculture and environment. The basis of a conceptual design is imply to first conceive an ideal or model and then to devise a strategy and method for achieving the reality. However it is necessary to carefully coordinate the materials, the environment, and the technologies constituting the method. Moreover one should adopt a philosophical attitude in applying microbial technologies to agricultural production and conservation systems.
There are many opinions on what an ideal agricultural system is. Many would agree that such an idealized system should produce food on a long-term sustainable basis. Many would also insist that it should maintain and improve human health, be economically and spiritually beneficial to both producers and consumers, actively preserve and protect the environment, be self-contained and regenerative, and produce enough food for an increasing world population (Higa, 1991).
Efficient Utilization and Recycling of Energy
Agricultural production begins with the process of photosynthesis by green plants which requires solar energy, water, and carbon dioxide. It occurs through the plants ability to utilize solar energy in "fixing" atmospheric carbon into carbohydrates. The energy obtained is used for further biosynthesis in the plant, including essential amino acids and proteins. The materials used for agricultural production are abundantly available with little initial cost. However, when it is observed as an economic activity, the fixation of carbon by photosynthesis has an extremely low efficiency mainly because of the low utilization rate of solar energy by green plants. Therefore, an integrated approach is needed to increase the level of solar energy utilization by plants so that greater amounts of atmospheric carbon can be converted into useful substrates (Higa and Wididana, 1991a).
Although the potential utilization rate of solar energy by plants has been estimated theoretically at between 10 and 20%, the actual utilization rate is less than 1%. Even the utilization rate of C4 plants, such as sugar cane whose photosynthetic efficiency is very high, barely exceeds 6 or 7% during the maximum growth period. The utilization rate is normally less than 3% even for optimum crop yields.
Past studies have shown that photosynthetic efficiency of the chloroplasts of host crop plants cannot be increased much further; this means that their biomass production has reached a maximum level. Therefore, the best opportunity for increasing biomass production is to somehow utilize the visible light, which chloroplasts cannot presently use, and the infrared radiation; together, these comprise about 80% of the total solar energy. Also, we must explore ways of recycling organic energy contained in plant and animal residues through direct utilization of organic molecules by plants (Higa and Wididana, 1991a).
Thus, it is difficult to exceed the existing limits of crop production unless the efficiency of utilizing solar energy is increased, and the energy contained in existing organic molecules (amino acids, peptides and carbohydrates) is utilized either directly or indirectly by the plant. This approach could help to solve the problems of environmental pollution and degradation caused by the misuse and excessive application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to soils. Therefore, new technologies that can enhance the economic-viability of farming systems with little or no use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are urgently needed and should be a high priority of agricultural research both now and in the immediate future (National Academy of Sciences, 1989; 1993).
Preservation of Natural Resources and the Environment
The excessive erosion of topsoil from farmland caused by intensive tillage and row-crop production has caused extensive soil degradation and also contributed to the pollution of both surface and groundwater. Organic wastes from animal production, agricultural and marine processing industries, and municipal wastes (e.i., sewage and garbage), have become major sources of environmental pollution in both developed and developing countries. Furthermore, the production of methane from paddy fields and ruminant animals and of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, land clearing and organic matter decomposition have been linked to global warming as "greenhouse gases" (Parr and Hornick, 1992b).
Chemical-based, conventional systems of agricultural production have created many sources of pollution that, either directly or indirectly, can contribute to degradation of the environment and destruction of our natural resource base. This situation would change significantly if these pollutants could be utilized in agricultural production as sources of energy.
Therefore, it is necessary that future agricultural technologies be compatible with the global ecosystem and with solutions to such problems in areas different from those of conventional agricultural technologies. An area that appears to hold the greatest promise for technological advances in crop production, crop protection, and natural resource conservation is that of beneficial and effective microorganisms applied as soil, plant and environmental inoculants (Higa, 1995).
Beneficial and Effective Microorganisms for a Sustainable Agriculture Towards Agriculture Without Chemicals and With Optimum Yields of High Quality Crops.
Agriculture in a broad sense, is not an enterprise which leaves everything to nature without intervention. Rather it is a human activity in which the farmer attempts to integrate certain agroecological factors and production inputs for optimum crop and livestock production. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that farmers should be interested in ways and means of controlling beneficial soil microorganisms as an important component of the agricultural environment. Nevertheless, this idea has often been rejected by naturalists and proponents of nature farming and organic agriculture. They argue that beneficial soil microorganisms will increase naturally when organic amendments are applied to soils as carbon, energy and nutrient sources. This indeed may be true where an abundance of organic materials are readily available for recycling which often occurs in small-scale farming. However, in most cases, soil microorganisms, beneficial or harmful, have often been controlled advantageously when crops in various agroecological zones are grown and cultivated in proper sequence (i.e., crop rotations) and without the use of pesticides. This would explain why scientists have long been interested in the use of beneficial microorganisms as soil and plant inoculants to shift the microbiological equilibrium in a way that enhances soil quality and the yield and quality of crops (Higa and Wididana, 1991b; Higa, 1994:1995).
Most would agree that a basic rule of agriculture is to ensure that specific crops are grown according to their agroclimatic and agroecological requirements. However, in many cases the agricultural economy is based on market forces that demand a stable supply of food, and thus, it becomes necessary to use farmland to its full productive potential throughout the year.
The purpose of crop breeding is to improve crop production, crop protection, and crop quality. Improved crop cultivars along with improved cultural and management practices have made it possible to grow a wide variety of agricultural and horticultural crops in areas where it once would not have been culturally or economically feasible. The cultivation of these crops in such diverse environments has contributed significantly to a stable food supply in many countries. However, it is somewhat ironic that new crop cultures are almost never selected with consideration of their nutritional quality or bioavailability after ingestion (Hornick, 1992).
As will be discussed later, crop growth and development are closely related to the nature of the soil microflora, especially those in close proximity to plant roots, i.e., the rhizosphere. Thus, it will be difficult to overcome the limitations of conventional agricultural technologies without controlling soil microorganisms. This particular tenet is further reinforced because the evolution of most forms of life on earth and their environments are sustained by microorganisms. Most biological activities are influenced by the state of these invisible, minuscule units of life. Therefore, to significantly increase food production, it is essential to develop crop cultivars with improved genetic capabilities (i.e., greater yield potential, disease resistance, and nutritional quality) and with a higher level of environmental competitiveness, particularly under stress conditions (i.e., low rainfall, high temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, and agressive weed growth).
To enhance the concept of controlling and utilizing beneficial microorganisms for crop production and protection, one must harmoniously integrate the essential components for plant growth and yield including light (intensity, photoperiodicity and quality), carbon dioxide, water, nutrients (organic-inorganic) soil type, and the soil microflora. Because of these vital interrelationships, it is possible to envision a new technology and a more energy-efficient system of biological production.
Low agricultural production efficiency is closely related to a poor coordination of energy conversion which, in turn, is influenced by crop physiological factors, the environment, and other biological factors including soil microorganisms. The soil and rhizosphere microflora can accelerate the growth of plants and enhance their resistance to disease and harmful insects by producing bioactive substances. These microorganisms maintain the growth environment of plants, and may have secondary effects on crop quality. A wide range of results are possible depending on their predominance and activities at any one time. Nevertheless, there is a growing consensus that it is possible to attain maximum economic crop yields of high quality, at higher net returns, without the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Until recently, this was not thought to be a very likely possibility using conventional agricultural methods. However, it is important to recognize that the best soil and crop management practices to achieve a more sustainable agriculture will also enhance the growth, numbers and activities of beneficial soil microorganisms that, in turn, can improve the growth, yield and quality of crops (National Academy of Sciences, 1989; Hornick, 1992; Parr et al., 1992).
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